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1. No modern scientists would argue that Laws govern the universe - they merely describe the phenomenon that we see. In that regard, there aretimes when old Newtonian views work, and times when Chaos theory is more apt.

2. Technically speaking, I think it was Darwin who started the shift from detrministic thinking to probablistic thinking in scientific fields(the study of mathematical probability didn't really get started until the 17th century, and statistical analysis until later, which may have also been why no one was able to crack genetics before Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.

3. While causality appears to break down at the subatomic level, it is fallacy to try to apply that to the macro level. For whatever reason, that sort of weirdness breaks down when looking at large objects (one theory I'm familiar suggested that gravity causes the probablity field to collapse, so that at the macro level, reality is more certain).

4. It seems to me you're making... well, mistake would be the wrong word... let's say your approach to the topic appears typical of the humanities major - translating the science into romantic philosophy, and in so doing rushing into generalized statements that the science itself may not support. That said, I have nothing against doing so, as some of our finest SF stories came from artists taking a simple idea and running with it.

5. There is no question that our understanding of the universe is broken. Relativity theory and Quantum mechanics stand at odds with each other. Both work for what we need them to do, but they also contradict each other so they cannot both be true. Either the two ideas are incomplete, or they are wrong and will need to replaced by a more cohesive theory. Until these answers are figured out, scientists will continue to use these models because, as I said, they work, but it would be a mistake to assume that either one, at this point, can be seen as the correct understanding of the universe.

6. Now how do I break it to you that you were always fated to write that essay?